PHONOLOGY

Consonant alternations: velars and labials

The velars k and g were palatalized before e (> a), i, and already in early Indo-Iranian, a change which frequently produced alternations within the paradigms and between different forms derived from the same root.

In Avestan the original velars k and g in addition frequently became the spirants x and y, and the palatalized c and j sometimes became š and ž, which complicates the picture considerably.

Forms with the original k and g may no longer be attested among the Young Avestan forms.

Similar, but fewer, changes befell the labial and dental stops. Examples:

 

 

Spirant:

Palatal:

Sibilant:

unvoiced

voiced

Nivak

 

väx-š, ux-ta-

väy-žibiš

väcim

 

dtank

tak-a9ra-

tax-ma-

 

tanc-išta-

tQš-iiah-

ak-a-

 

 

ac-išta-

aš-iiah-

aog-amaide aogara

aox-ta

 

aojaite aoj-ah-

 

Ådraog

x]dab

äp-õ

p-ata

drux-š, drux-ta-

äf-š

f-ôörõi

draoy-a-

dißža-, daiuuiš

Põ-rõi

druj-im

druž-a-

Combinations of stops and dental stops

From the preceding table we see that k/g + t > M, but p/b + t > pt. [All the other Iranian languages have

Dental stops behave rather differently from this. When an ending beginning with a dental stop (t or d) is added to a stem also ending in a dental stop, the resulting combination is replaced by the sequence sibilant + dental stop: st, zd.

The combination t + t always > st, e.g., amauuat + tama- > amauuastama- "most forceful."

The combinations d + t or d + d usually > zd, as in dazdi "give!" < *dad-di and dazde < *dad-te. We also find st, however, as in dasta "give (plur.)!" < *dad-ta, and daste beside dazde < *dad-te.

[The forms daste and dazde reflect the two-fold origin of Avestan (Iranian) dä-: from Indo-Iranian dä"to give" (Greek didõmi, Latin dare.) and dhä- (Greek tithë.mi, Latin facere, English do), present stems dadä- and dadhä-. The forms were originally *dad-tai and *dadh-tai. The first regularly became daste. The second was subject to two pre-Iranian rules which produced the form *dad-dhai (progressive assimilation and movement of the aspiration). This form then regularly became Iranian *daddai, which in turn became dazde. In Old Avestan the two forms are still used in their original meanings, but in Young Avestan no distinction is observed.]

Laryngeals

Indo-European possessed a set of phonemes realized as sounds produced in the throat: in the pharynx or the larynx. These phonemes and their phonetic realizations are commonly referred to as "laryngeals." In proto-Indo-Iranian two laryngeals—or their later reflexes—seem to have still survived, one probably a kind of h and the other probably a glottal stop—here denoted by the symbol (the sound found in some local pronunciations of English in words such as battle, pronounced ba)el). In Indo-Iranian these laryngeals contracted with a preceding vowel when they were followed by a consonant or were at the end of a word, but left a "hiatus" when they were between vowels. Later the hitaus disappeared and the vowels were contracted into one long vowel or a diphthong. This hiatus must still have been pronounced in Old Avestan times—even though the orthography does not show it—as two vowels with hiatus between them metrically count as two syllables.

An old laryngeal is also responsible for the alternation between ara and ara in some zero-grade forms. Thus we have karata- "done" < Åkar, but starata- < NstarH (but starata- "stunned" < 4star). We also see the effect of the original laryngeal in forms such as daraya- < *drHga-, as opposed to dräjah- < *draHjah-.

NOUNS

Laryngeal stems

Schematically, the development of the masc. a-stem mazdä- must have been as follows:

 

early Indo-Iran.

late Indo-Iran.

Old Avestan

Young Avestan

Spelling

nom.

*mazdaH-s

> *mazdäs

> *mazdäh

> *mazdäh

> mazdå

acc.

*mazdaH-m

> *mazda Dam

> *mazdäm

> mazdqm

*mazdaH-as

> *mazda'ah

> *mazdäh

> mazdå

raii-.

The i-stem raii- "wealth" has the following irregular forms, also caused by the presence of a laryngeal.

No nom. forms are attested:

acc.

*rah-lim

raë.m

gen.

*raHiah

> *räiah

räiiõ

acc.

*raHinš

 

*raHiäm

> *räiäm

raiiqm

Note: The gen. plur. has the common shortening of ä before ii (Lesson 16).

The masculine ã-stem paptã-

This stem is characterized by double ablaut, that is, both the root and the (original) suffix change during the declension. Some of the irregularities of this noun are due to the original presence of a laryngeal, which, when coming between the t of this stem and the vowel of an ending, turned the t into 9 (tH > th > 9), but was lost between consonant.

In both Old Indic and Avestan the paradigm is completed by n-stem forms. YAv. also has a fem. paeä-.

 

early Indo-Iran.

early Iranian

YAv.

pantan-

pa9ä-

nom.

*pantaH-s

*pantäh

par.ltà

 

 

acc.

*panta Darn

paygtgm

pantänam

 

 

*petH-as

*paeah

pa9õ

 

 

nom.

*pantaH-as

*panta'ah

 

pantänõ

 

acc.

*path-I-as

*paeah

 

 

 

 

*pntH-äm

*pa9äm

paeqrn

 

 

2003

Han-stems

The following words with similar double ablaut were probably originally Han-stems:

maratän-/maraen- < *marta-Han-/mart-H-n- "containing dead stuff(?)" (YAv. only in Gaiia- Maratän-); hazaohan-/hazasn- < *hazah-Han-/hazas-H-n- "violent person" (< hazah- "violence"); häuuanän- < *hauana-Han-/hauana-Hn-, the priest in charge of the pressing of the haoma (hauuana-):

nom.

marata

hazaoha

häuuana

acc.

 

hazalÿhanam

häuuanänam

gen.

mar96nõ

 

häuanänõ

nom.

k maratänõ (OAv.)

hazasnqrn

 

Note: In principle, OAv. maratänõ could be the gen. sing. < *marta-Hn-ah, if the Yav. weak stem maraenis secondary.

Root nouns ending in laryngeals

The root nouns in -ï and -ü were also originally laryngeal stems. Examples: ratufrï- "which satisfies the (ritual) models," yauuaëjï- "who/which lives for ever," yauuaêsü- "who/which forever renews life," zauuanõ.sü- "who/which renews life when libated (to?)":

 

early Indo-Iran.

early Iranian

YAv.

nom.

*jiH-š, *suH-š

*jïš, *süš

jiš, suš

acc.

*jiH-m,

*w Dam, *swam

jim, sum

gen.

*jiH-as, *suH-as

 

nom.-acc.

Dual

*jiH-ns, *suH-rgs

*jiH-äm, *suH-äm

jiiõ, suuõ

nom.-acc.

*priH-ä(u)

*friHä

friia

The feminine ã-stem ušã-

The fem. ä-stem ušä• "dawn" also has nom. sing. in -å and acc. sing. in -qrn, like mazdä-. Other forms are made from an ä-stem ušä- and an Il-stem ušah-.

nom.

ušå

 

acc.

ušam ušaiiå

ušål)ham

Note: The gen. form is not attested, but the abl. is ušaiiät from the ä-declension (Lesson 14).

Some irregular i-stems

The i-stems vi- m. "bird," paiti- "master," and jaini- f. "woman" have various kinds of irregularites.

nom. viš    paitiš acc.                            paitim    gen.                       janiiaoš

nom. vaiiõ       janaiiõ acc.                          jainiš gen.             vaiiqm (vaiianqrn)                          jaininqnz

Notes:

No gen. sing. form of paiti- is attested but the dative form (Lesson 13) shows it is irregular. The compounds in paiti- (daúhu.paiti-, etc.) are regular i-stems.

The gen. sing. of jaini- is not certain. The mss. also have janiiõiš. The formjaniiaoš is similar to Olnd.

patyus < pati-, and so has been preferred here (after Pirart, 1993).

Irregular neuter Il-stems

The neut. Il-stems äiiu- "life(time)," zänu- "knee," and däuru- "tree" have alternating long and zero degrees of the stem corresponding to zero and full grade of the suffix vowel. äiiu- also has regular Il-stem forms beside the ablauting ones. The zero grade of zänu- "knee" is žnu- or (x)šnu-, but no nom.-acc. or gen. forms are found.

 

äiiu-

däuru-

zänu-

nom.-acc.

äiiu

däuru

 

 

  yaoš     aiiaoš

draoš

 

The nk-decension

There is a group of adjectives with stems ending in nk denoting directions (forward, backward, sideways,

In Avestan the nom. sing. of these stems has lost the original velar, that is, it does not survive as x, as in the other velar stems (väx-š, etc.), and the ending is -Qš < [Cf. Olnd. -äñ, e.g., paräñ.]

Aside from the nominative, the strong stem ends in -änc- and the weak stem in -äc-, sometimes abbreviated to -ac-. The long ä in these forms is not long ablaut grade, but the result of contraction after the loss of a laryngeal: *para-Hank- > *para Dank- > parä¿zk-.

The only neuter form ends in -ägat, which—it has been suggested—may not be directly from *-äkt, but a way of writing -äk with a non-released final -k (like the final -t). This form is from  < *paraHnk(t).

nom.

-Qš, -iš; n. -ägat

apqš, paiti.yqš, parqš,frqš, viš

n. parägat

f. apašï-

acc.

-åncim

niiånc.inz

 

 

nom.

-åncõ

niiåncõ, haeråncõ

 

 

Notes:

The form viš (Lesson 5) may be for *viš, as in the acc. plur. of i-stems.

112

In the fem. apaši, the c has apparently been palatalized before the i, more probably it has been introduced by analogy with gen.-dat. forms (unattested): *apašiiå, *apašiiäi, where it would be regular.

ADJECTIVES

The comparative and superlative

As in other Indo-European languages there are two different ways of forming the comparative and superlative of an adjective, a "regular" and an "irregular" one, compare English long — longer longest versus ntuch more most.

These two methods correspond to two Avestan kinds of comparatives and superlatives, one made with the suffixes -tara- and -tama, respectively, added to the positive form of the adjective and another with -iiah- and -išta-, respectively, added to a different form of the adjective than the positive. The comparative is discussed in Lesson 14.

The superlative

The superlative in -tama- is formed by attaching this ending to the stem of the adjective with appropriate sandhi before the ending -tama-. Adjectives with ablauting suffixes take the weak stem (cf. the comparatives, lesson 14).

Note that a-stems often take a special "composition form" in -õ (= nom. sing. masc.) before this ending. Consonant stems in -t change the t > s before the t- of the ending (-t-t- > -st-).

The superlative in -išta- is made from the root in the full grade, also with appropriate sandhi (k > c, g >

j). Adjectives with suffixes lose the suffixes in this type of superlative.

1. Examples of superlatives in -tama-:

baëšaziia- "healing"

baëšaziiõ.tama-

hubaoiði- "fragrant"

hubaoiðitama-

huðäh- "giving good gifts"

huôästama-

yäskarat- "competitive"

yäskarastanza-

amauuant- "forceful"

amauuastama-

vara9rauuant- "resistant, valorous"

varaerauuastama-

ašauuan- "Orderly"

ašauuastama-

varaerajan- "victorious'

vara9rajQ,stama-

Note: ašauuastama- and varaerajqstama- are analogical after amauuastama-, varaerauuastama-, etc.

2. Examples of superlatives in -išta-:

aka- "evil"

acišta-

asu- "fast"

äsišta-

pouru- (< *prH-u-) "much"

fraêšta- (< *praH-išta-)

vaohu- "good" (< *yahu-)

vahišta-

driyu- "poor"

draêjišta-

masita- "long"

masišta-

mazänt- "big"

mazišta-

spanta- "beneficial"

sp5ništa- (< *span-išta-)

šiiäta- "happy'

šiiäišta-

  taxma- (< *tnk-ma-) "firm"                                           tancišta-

namra- "soft, pliable"    nqrništasrira- (< *sriH-ra-) "beautiful"          sraêšta- (< *sraiH-išta-) stura- (< *stHu-ra-) "stout, strong" stäuuišta- (< *staHu-išta- or *stHau-išta-) sura- (< *suH-ra-) "rich in life-giving strength"           sauuišta- (< *sauH-išta-) una- "strong"          aojištabuiri-          dbõišta-

Notes:

The form xra¶išta- "most intelligent" corresponds to xratumant- "intelligent," but is probably a "learned" form derived from the noun xratu-.

Forms with double suffix are also found: draëjištõ.tama- "the most poorest."

VERBS

Middle participles

The middle present participles have the ending -amna- in the thematic, and -ana- (-ana-) in the athematic conjugations, e.g., athematic: ynäna- < jan-/gn- "smash," mruuäna- < mrao-/mru- "speak," aojäna-< aog"say," hunuuana- < hao-/hu- "press (the haoma)," da9äna- < daöä-/daô- "place," thematic: yazamna-, baramna-.

The thematic participle undergoes the usual changes of the stem vowel in iia-stems, after a palatal consonant, and after -UU-. Examples: mainimna-, yezimna-, hacimna- < haca- "follow," daomna- < dauua"chatter (lies)."

Often the "regular" forms have been reintroduced in the iia-stems (-imna- -iiamna-), and in the aiiastems there seem to be no examples of the original forms (in *-aêmna-); only forms in -aiiamna- are attested.

Note the expression uiti aojana-, uitiiaojana- "(thus) saying, with the words."

Past participles

The past participle (Eng. "done, killed") has the ending ta-. The ending is in most cases added to the zero grade of the root of the verb, if possible. Since the ending begins with t, numerous internal sandhi modifications take place:

I. Roots ending in vowels:

1.  Roots ending in diphthong/short vowel:          šuta-.

2.  Roots ending in long vowels: Ådä: däta-, Nstä: stäta-.

Il. Roots ending in consonants:

1.  Roots ending in stops: Nvak: uxta-, Ndab: dapta-, dband: basta-.

2.  Roots ending in sibilants and h: Åspas: spašta-, 4varz: varšta-, dxvah: xVasta-.

3.  Roots ending in nasals: Nman: mata-.

4.  Roots ending in r: Nlkar: karata-, N]star: starata-.

5.  Roots ending in laryngeal: däta- (< *daH-ta-),frita- (< *frïta-), huta- (< *hüta-), starata- (< *strHta-).

1 14

SYNTAX

Use of the genitive. 2

I c. Further examples of the possessive genitive

The possessive genitive is used with the verb "to be" in the sense of English "to have":

mana xVara9am asti "I have food, it serves me as food.' paucanem ahmi pancanem nõit ahmi

"I belong to five. To five I do not belong."

Mazdå aogara Mazdå xšaeram Mazdå astuuå aohuš asti nõit drujõ

"To Mazdä belongs the might, to Mazdä the royal command, to Mazda the existence with bones, not to the Lie." (after Yt.13.12)

A special use of the possessive/objective genitive is seen in expressions of the type "land-lord of the land":

daúhãuš daúhupaitiš zantãušzavtu.paitiš visõ vïs.paitiš nmãnahe nmänõ.paitiš

"Land-lord of the land, tribe-lord of the tribe, town-lord of the town, house-lord of the house.'

    F rt er xa iv          ni iv

erišum aëtahe šiia09nahe baxšanti... naêmam aëtahe šiiaoenahe baxšanti . vispam aëtahe éiiaoenahe baxšanti

"They distribute one-third of this act; they distribute one half of this act; they distribute all of this act"

(V.8.98-100) yätauuõ mašiiãllëžn        

"Sorcerers among men, those of men who are sorcerers." (Yt.8.44)

Mi9rõ äsištõ yazatanam                                                          

"Mi6ra, the fastest of/among gods."

Vištäspõ åyhem daúiiunem äsu.aspõ.tamõ bauuat

"Vištäspa became the one possessing the fastest horses of (among) these lands." (Yt.5.98)

2e. Partitive genitive of time and place

The partitive genitive can be used with adverbs of place ("there, where?") and time ("then, when?"):

dätara gaêeanqm astuuaitinqrn ašãum kuua paoirim aÚhå zamõšäištam

"O Orderly creator of bony beings, where firstly in this earth is it (a) most happy (place)?" (V.3. l)

2f. Free partitive genitive

A "free" partitive gen. (French du, etc.) is found with verbs of giving, bringing, partaking, etc.:

yat mašiiõ mašïm xšudrå auui fraoharazaiti yat vä mašiiõ mašiiänqm. xšudranQm para.gauruuaiieiti

"when a man releases (his) semen in a man, or when a man receives the semen of men." (V .8.32)

A similar genitive is found in negated sentences ("not (any) of ...")

"Along those roads shall not go forth (any) sheep, cattle, men, or women!" (after V.8.15)

3b. Genitive with verbs

Some verbs meaning "rule, govern, control" govern the genitive:

tum ãxštõiš anãxštõišca Mi9ra xšaiiehe dafiiungm

"You, O Mi9ra, rule over the peace and non-peace of the lands." (Yt. 10.29)

Note also the expression mänaiian/mqnaiian ahe yaea "like," literally "resembling that like" (see Lesson 18 on the use of the optative):

yõ imçm zqrn aca pairica bauuaiti manaiian ahe yaea viš aëm

"which lies upon and about this earth, like a bird (its) egg." (after Yt. 13.2)

5, Descriptive genitive

There are a few examples of the descriptive genitive (genitivus qualitatis).

yat hë pu9rõ uz.zaiiata visõ suraiiå 9raëtaonõ

. that a son was born to him, 9raëtaona of the house rich in life-giving strength" (Y .9.7)

iv

Genitive forms are sometimes used instead of dative forms, e.g., yasnahe "for the sacrifice (to)" (see Yt.13.147, below).

Use of the past participle

We have already seen many examples of the past participle being used as an adjective. It also commonly used as apposition, in which case it refers to an action that was completed before the action or state indicated by the main verb of the clause. Also when used as an adjective, it sometimes retains this temporal function.

l. Past participles as apposition

yat barata Avram Manium fra.mitam aspahe kahrpa 9risatam aißi.gämanqrn

. that he (Taxma Urupi) rode the Evil Spirit, (having been) transformed, in the shape of a horse, for thirty years." (Yt. 19.29)

pasca para.iristahe mašiiehe pasca fra.saxtahe mašiiehe

"After a man having passed away, after a man having passed on." (V. 19.28)

2. Past participles with direct (inner) object

The past participle sometimes has active function and can take a direct (inner) object:

upa.tacat Araduuï Sura Anähita nizaoga aoera paiti.šmuxta

"Aroduuï Sura Anãhita came running, shod in *high shoes." (Yt.5.64)

mazdaiiasnõ zaraeuštrišfrauuaränë ãstütascä frauuarataœä

"I choose to sacrifice to Ahura Mazda, being in the tradition of Zarathustra, having chosen my praise(?) and having made my choice." (Y. 12.8)

3. Past participles + "to be"

The past participle is occasionally used with "to be," which, as usual, may be omitted:

cuuaetam zruuänam maniiauua stiš dãta as

"For how long had the (temporal) existence in the world of thought been established?" (FrV.2.19)

kaða nõ iôa a5äum agatõ (for: ägatõ ahi) ai9iiajaoham ahum ä

"How have you come, O sustainer of Order, to us, to (this) existence without danger?" (V. 19.31)

In these constructions the past participle may be combined with a personal pronoun in the gen. indicating possession or agent:

yezica hëaniia aya šiia09na frauuaršta paitita hë ci9a

"If he has performed other evil deeds, (then) the penalty (is) absolved." (V .3.21)

Note the combination of a past participle and a verb from the same root (figura etymologica):

  ya9a Mi9rõ hubaratö barata (after Yt. 10.112)                                       

"When Mi9ra was well treated." yatci! huuastam aúhiieiti

"even when he shoots an (arrow) well." (Yt. 10.21) haera.taršta eråyhaiiete

"he frightens them then and there." (Yt. 10.101)

kahmäi äsnqmci!frazaivtïm haera.jata [for Ojatqm] nijanãni [l sing. pres. subjunctive]

"For whom shall I strike down then and there nothing but (his) own progeny?" (Yt. 10.110) yõ hištaite maniiu.stãtõ

"(the sky) which stands stood in the world of thought." (Yt. 13.2)

4. Adjectival past participles for action nouns

The past participle is sometimes used where we would use an action noun:

gä9å srutå        lit. "the heard Gä9ãs," that is, "the Gã6äs when heard, at the recitation of the Gä6äs."

EXERCISES 12

l . Write in transcription and Avestan script the nom, voc., acc., gen. sing., plur. (where appropriate), and dual forms (not proper names) of the following nouns and adjectives:

pantä- daraya-, aôuuan- ai9iiajah-, daðuuah- barazant-; Araduuï- Surä- Anähitä-, Sraoša- ašiia-, Rašnurazišta-, Ahura Mazdä raëuuant- xVarana1JVhaot-.

2. Transcribe and translate into English, then give the nom. and gen. forms of the accusatives in the text:

(Vr.7.1) 3. Transcribe and translate into English:

(Y.9.19)

(Y.10.15)

(Y. 10.16 )

(Y. 20.12) しあ

(Y. 57.1)

(after Y. 60.4 , 68. Ⅱ ) もs~ゝ》、ゝゆ、しい~

・、

癶↓亠、や加ゝ、・一、・し弋、め~ド、ク・

ー魲 ド ク鬯や・・・

ー破~い・”い当あ、ーあ2し・一ヾ当

(Yt. 5.61-64)

(Yt. 8.14)

                              ~    ー、

(Yt. 8.44 )

(Y凵0.76 )

9 ,

(after Yt. 13.2)

(Yt.13.147)

(after Yt.14.19)

(after Yt.17.61)

1 1

•

(Yt.19.10)

(V. 3.4)

4. Identify the genitive forms in the litany and explain how they are formed:

1 Note: asti is sometimes used instead of the imperfect as.

(). l . 1 1)

( Y · 1 · 12 )

( Y.1 . 13 )

( Y.l.14)

( Y. l . 1 5 )

(Y.l.16 )

9 ,

5. Translate into Avestan and write in Avestan script:

1.         We sacrifice to Sraoša of the rewards, obstruction-smashing, who furthers the world of living beings, Orderly model of Order.

2.         We sacrifice to the fravashi of Orderly Gaiia Marotan, as well as that of (yqmca) straightest Rašnu, and that of Mi9ra with wide grazing grounds,

3.         and that of the life-giving poetic thought, and that of yonder high heaven, and that of this wide, round earth,—which carries us—

4.         and that of the water and the waters, and that of the plant and the plants.

5.         The daëuuas overcame one-fifth of all Orderly men and women.

6.         Thraetaona smashed one third of all daëuuas and sorcerers, and sorceresses, tyrants, kauuis, and karapans.

7.         This Fortune belongs to me, Ahura Mazdä, creator of the existence, both the one of thought and the one with bones.

8.         That Fortune belongs to splendid Yima with good herds, the protector of beasts—small and large— and men.

9.         We sacrifice to these haomas that have been set up. We sacrifice to the barsom that has been spread out.

10.      This Orderly man has come here to the best existence.

VOCABULARY 12

abda-: wonderful aëm acc.: egg (Lesson 9) agata- < ä.jasa-: arrived ahu- = arjhuamauuastoma-, superl. of amauuantanäpa-: waterless, dry anäxšti- f.: non-peace aogaro n.: strength aojišta-, superl. of untraaoera- n.: shoe apänk-, *apäc-, f. apašï- (*apäcï-): backward asan-/ašn-: stone, heaven asrušti- f.: non-listening (to God) astuuant-: having/with bones ašn- < asanašiiah-, comparative of aka-

a¥auuajan-: smasher/killer of the sustainers of Order auual)horoza- < Åharz: to renounce, relinquish auui.yäh-: wearing the sacred girdle (kusti) axVarota-: *non seizable ä: hither, in this direction

ä.airii5ma.išiia-: "(may) speedy Airiiaman (come) here, name of a holy prayer (Y .54.1)

ä.bauua- < xlbao: to lie upon äfšciera-: containing the seed of water äi n. (only form): earth äiiu-/yao- n.: age, lifetime äpa-: watery, waterlogged äsišta-, superl. of äsuãsna-: born as one's own äxšti- f.: peace äzäta-: high-born

here, name of a holy prayer (Y.54.1)

ã.bauua- < Åbao: to lie upon ãfici9ra-: containing the seed of water ai n. (only form): earth äiiü-/yao- n.: age, lifetime äpa-: watery, waterlogged ãsišta-, superl. of asuãsna-: born as one's own äxšti- f.: peace ãzäta-: high-born bämiia-: luminous bitiia-: second caeruša-: one side of a square caerušuua-: a fourth

Cinuuatö porotu-: the ford of the Accountant (where the souls of the dead are judged by Rašnu with the scales and then sent up to Paradise or down to

cisti- f.: insight, illumination(?) citha- n.: seed, brilliance daúhao- f.: land daroyö.jiti- f.: longevity, long life däuru-/drao- n.: tree dbõišta- < buiri-: most draëjišta- superl. of driyu-: poorest draëjištö.toma-: the "most poorest" draoya- (noun/adj.?): deception, deceptive(?) dräjah- n.: length druuatät- f.: health Hra9ä < ara6ï-(?): a deity orazuuaitï-, fem. of orozu-: upright, tall ouuitö.xaroòa- < a-vi-ita-: from which the feces has not gone away fraëšta-, superl. of pourufrail —— frãii- < Åaë/i: to go forth franhoroza- < 4harz: to release (semen) framita-: transformed fra.saxta-: passed away, come to the end of life fraša.vaxšiia-: perfect growth frauuaršta- < frauuoroziia-: to perform         frauuaza- mid.: to drive/fly forth/forward frazainti- f.: offspring fräii-, see fraiifrank-, fräc-: forward, away (from + gen.)

Gaiia- Marotän-: "life with the dead thing"(?), name of the first mortal proto-man Garõ.nmäna- n.: house of song, Paradise haera.jata-: smashedštruck down then and there haera.taršta-: frightened then and there haeränk-, haeränc-: in one and the same direction hazaghan-/hazasn- m.: violent person, thug ham.vaintï-: *harmonious hubaoiõitoma-, superl. of hubaoiõihuõästoma-, superl. of huõãh-

hukorap- (cf. hukorapta-): having/with a good

(beautiful) shape hukaroptoma-, superl. of hukorophuuasta- < 4ah.• well-shot išiia-: (who/which is) to be sped along, speedy jaini- f.: woman karapan-/karafn-: "mumbler"; a kind of bad priests käraiia- < Nlkar: to till, sow mairiiã-: villainess, bad woman maniia- < Åman mid.: to think marotãn-/maroen-: mortal masišta-: longest mata-, perf. part. of maniia-: thought mazãl)t-: great mänaiion, manaiion ahe yaea: like morayonte < *moranx-te (for *morang-de), 3rd sing. pres. mid.of moronc-/marank- (see Lesson 16) < x]mark mid.: to destroy mruta- < Åmrao: spoken naëma- a half, side

Nairiia- Sarjha-, Nairiiö.sa1Jha-: the heroic/divine announcement; messenger of the gods namra-: soft, pliable namišta-, superl. of namraniiänk-, niiänc-, *nic-: downward nizonga-: reaching up on the leg (?) nmãnö.paiti-: master of the home/house pairi.bauua- < Åbao/bu: to be (lie) around, surround paiti.daiia-: overseer paiti.šmuxta-, past part. of *paiti.šmunca- <

Åmaok/muk: to put on (shoes) paitita- < paiti- 4i-: absolved paiti.yänk-, *paitic-: facing, straight toward panca: five paoiriiõ.!kaëša- usually plur.: the first *guides para.gouruuaiia- < N/grab: to take up, receive para.irista- < para.iri9iia-: passed away paränk-, parãc-: away parö.katarštoma-: ?

pitu- m.: meal raocah- n.: light raocah-: light (adj.) rasastãt-: *generosity(?) rãii- > raëranjišta- superl. of rayu-: fleetest saocint-, pres. partic. of saoca < Nsaok: to burn,

scindaiia- < N,skand/scand: to break stäuuišta-, superl. of sturastorata- < Åstar: stunned stura-: stout, strong šãišta-, superlative of ,säta-: happiest taòa: then, at that time tancišta-, superl. of taxma-

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tašiiah-, comparative of taxmatbaëšarùhant-: full of hostility, hostile 613axšišta- < Nepaxš: the most energetic eräiiö: three eritiia-: third unã-: hole upa.šaë- < Åšaë/ši: to dwell (among us) u,skãt: up above uz.gouruuaiia < 4garß/graP: to lift up vacah- ll.: word, speech vaë-/vi-: bird vazomna-, pres. partic. of vaza- mid.: driving vã ... vã: either ... or vãcim bara-: lift up one's voice vãroyna-: name of a bird of prey, *falcon västra- n. : pasture, grass vãta-: wind vink-, vic-: aside(ward) vis.paiti-: master of the house vispö.x V ã9ra-: full of good breathing space xraoždišta-, superl. of xruždraxra9Pišta- < xratumant-: most intelligent xruždra-: firm, hard xV aõäta-: made/placed by/for themselves(?) x V ar09õ.bairiia-: food-bearing yao- < äiiuyauua-: barley yauuaëtät- f.: eternity yäskarostoma-, superl. of yãskorotyãskarot- < yãh-: *competitive yästa-, past part. < yäh: girded zantu.paiti-: master of the tribe zaoera- n. and zaoerä-: libation zaraniiö.uruuixšna-: with braided (leather) straps of

zänu-/žnu- n.: knee žnu- < zãnu-

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